Lithium-ion battery

ABSTRACT

A lithium-ion battery includes a positive electrode having an active material and a polymeric separator configured to allow electrolyte and lithium ions to flow between a first side of the separator and an opposite second side of the separator. The battery also includes a liquid electrolyte having a lithium salt dissolved in at least one non-aqueous solvent and a negative electrode having a lithium titanate active material. The positive electrode has a first capacity and the negative electrode has a second capacity that is less than the first capacity.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/979,040 filed Oct. 29, 2004 and is also a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/978,712 filed Oct. 29, 2004. The entire disclosures of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/979,040 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/978,712 are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND

The present invention relates generally to the field of lithium-ion batteries. Specifically, the present invention relates to lithium-ion batteries that are relatively tolerant to over-discharge conditions.

Lithium-ion batteries include a positive current collector (e.g., aluminum such as an aluminum foil) having an active material provided thereon (e.g., LiCoO₂) and a negative current collector (e.g., copper such as a copper foil) having an active material (e.g., a carbonaceous material such as graphite) provided thereon. Together the positive current collector and the active material provided thereon are referred to as a positive electrode, while the negative current collector and the active material provided thereon are referred to as a negative electrode.

FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of a portion of a lithium-ion battery 10 such as that described above. The battery 10 includes a positive electrode 20 that includes a positive current collector 22 and a positive active material 24, a negative electrode 30 that includes a negative current collector 32 and a negative active material 34, an electrolyte material 40, and a separator (e.g., a polymeric microporous separator, not shown) provided intermediate or between the positive electrode 20 and the negative electrode 30. The electrodes 20, 30 may be provided as relatively flat or planar plates or may be wrapped or wound in a spiral or other configuration (e.g., an oval configuration). The electrode may also be provided in a folded configuration.

During charging and discharging of the battery 10, lithium ions move between the positive electrode 20 and the negative electrode 30. For example, when the battery 10 is discharged, lithium ions flow from the negative electrode 30 to the to the positive electrode 20. In contrast, when the battery 10 is charged, lithium ions flow from the positive electrode 20 to the negative electrode 30.

FIG. 2 is a graph 100 illustrating the theoretical charging and discharging behavior for a conventional lithium-ion battery. Curve 110 represents the electrode potential versus a lithium reference electrode for a positive electrode that includes an aluminum current collector having a LiCoO₂ active material provided thereon, while curve 120 represents the electrode potential versus a lithium reference electrode for a negative electrode that includes a copper current collector having a carbonaceous active material provided thereon. The difference between curves 110 and 120 is representative of the overall cell voltage.

As shown in FIG. 2, upon initial charging to full capacity, the potential of the positive electrode, as shown by curve 110, increases from approximately 3.0 volts to a point above the corrosion potential of copper used to form the negative electrode (designated by dashed line 122). The potential of the negative electrode decreases from approximately 3.0 volts to a point below the decomposition potential of the LiCoO₂ active material provided on the aluminum current collector (designated by dashed line 112). Upon initial charging, the battery experiences an irreversible loss of capacity due to the formation of a passive layer on the negative current collector, which may be referred to as a solid-electrolyte interface (“SEI”). The irreversible loss of capacity is shown as a ledge or shelf 124 in curve 120.

One difficulty with conventional lithium-ion batteries is that when such a battery is discharged to a point near zero volts, it may exhibit a loss of deliverable capacity and corrosion of the negative electrode current collector (copper) and possibly of the battery case, depending on the material used and the polarity of the case. As shown in FIG. 2, after initial charging of the battery, a subsequent discharge of the battery in which the voltage of the battery approaches zero volts (i.e., zero percent capacity) results in a negative electrode potential that follows a path designated by dashed line 126. As shown in FIG. 2, the negative electrode potential levels off or plateaus at the copper corrosion potential of the negative current collector (approximately 3.5 volts for copper and designated by dashed line 122 in FIG. 2).

The point at which the curves 110 and 120 cross is sometimes referred to as the zero voltage crossing potential, and corresponds to a cell voltage that is equal to zero (i.e., the difference between the two curves equals zero at this point). Because of the degradation of the copper current collector which occurs at the copper corrosion potential, the copper material used for the negative current collector corrodes before the cell reaches a zero voltage condition, resulting in a battery that exhibits a loss of deliverable capacity.

While FIG. 2 shows the theoretical charging and discharging behavior of a battery that may experience corrosion of the negative current collector when the battery approaches a zero voltage configuration, it should be noted that there may also be cases in which the active material on the positive current collector may degrade in near-zero-voltage conditions. In such cases, the theoretical charging and discharging potential of the positive electrode versus a lithium reference electrode would decrease to the decomposition potential of the positive active material (shown as line 112 in FIG. 2), at which point the positive active material would decompose, resulting in potentially decreased protection against future over-discharge conditions.

Because damage to the lithium-ion battery may occur in the event of a low voltage condition, conventional lithium-ion batteries may include protection circuitry and/or may be utilized in devices that include protection circuitry which substantially reduces the current drain from the battery (e.g., by disconnecting the battery).

The medical device industry produces a wide variety of electronic and mechanical devices for treating patient medical conditions. Depending upon the medical condition, medical devices can be surgically implanted or connected externally to the patient receiving treatment. Clinicians use medical devices alone or in combination with drug therapies and surgery to treat patient medical conditions. For some medical conditions, medical devices provide the best, and sometimes the only, therapy to restore an individual to a more healthful condition and a fuller life.

It may be desirable to provide a source of battery power for such medical devices, including implantable medical devices. In such cases, it may be advantageous to provide a battery that may be recharged. It may also be advantageous to provide a battery that may be discharged to a near zero voltage condition without substantial risk that the battery may be damaged (e.g., without corroding one of the electrodes or the battery case, decomposing the positive active material, etc.) such that the performance of the battery is degraded in subsequent charging and discharging operations.

It would be advantageous to provide a battery (e.g., a lithium-ion battery) that may be discharged to near zero volts without producing a subsequent decrease in the amount of deliverable capacity or producing a corroded negative electrode or battery case. It would also be advantageous to provide a battery that compensates for the irreversible loss of capacity resulting from initial charging of the battery to allow the battery to be used in near zero voltage conditions without significant degradation to battery performance. It would also be advantageous to provide a medical device (e.g., an implantable medical device) that utilizes a battery that includes any one or more of these or other advantageous features.

SUMMARY

An exemplary embodiment relates to a lithium-ion battery comprising a positive electrode comprising an active material and a polymeric separator configured to allow electrolyte and lithium ions to flow between a first side of the separator and an opposite second side of the separator. The battery also comprises a liquid electrolyte comprising a lithium salt dissolved in at least one non-aqueous solvent and a negative electrode comprising a lithium titanate active material. The positive electrode has a first capacity and the negative electrode has a second capacity that is less than the first capacity.

Another exemplary embodiment relates to a lithium-ion battery comprising a positive electrode having a first capacity and comprising a foil current collector and an active material comprising at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiCo_(x)Ni_((1-x))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3. The battery also includes an electrolyte and a negative electrode having a second capacity that is not greater than the first capacity, the negative electrode comprising a foil current collector and a lithium titanate active material.

Another exemplary embodiment relates to a lithium-ion battery comprising a positive electrode having a first capacity and comprising a foil current collector and an active material comprising at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiCo_(x)Ni_((1-x))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3. The battery also includes a liquid electrolyte and a negative electrode having a second capacity that is not greater than the first capacity. The negative electrode comprises a foil current collector and a Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ active material. A porous polymeric separator is provided between the positive electrode and the negative electrode.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a conventional lithium-ion battery.

FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating the theoretical charging and discharging behavior for a conventional lithium-ion battery such as that shown schematically in FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of a lithium-ion battery according to an exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the theoretical charging and discharging behavior for a lithium-ion battery such as that shown in FIG. 3.

FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the discharge capacity of battery cells and the effect of overdischarge cycling of such cells.

FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating voltage traces for a cell using a Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ active material on an aluminum negative current collector.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating voltage traces for a comparative cell using a carbon active material on a copper negative current collector.

FIG. 8 is a schematic view of a system in the form of an implantable medical device implanted within a body or torso of a patient.

FIG. 9 is schematic view of another system in the form of an implantable medical device.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

With reference to FIG. 3, a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of a lithium-ion battery 200 is shown according to an exemplary embodiment. According to an exemplary embodiment, the battery 200 has a rating of between approximately 10 and 1000 milliampere hours (mAh). According to another exemplary embodiment, the battery has a rating of between approximately 100 and 400 mAh. According to another exemplary embodiment, the battery is an approximately 300 mAh battery. According to another exemplary embodiment, the battery is an approximately 75 mAh battery.

The battery 200 includes at least one positive electrode 210 and at least one negative electrode 220. The electrodes may be provided as flat or planar components of the battery 200, may be wound in a spiral or other configuration, or may be provided in a folded configuration. For example, the electrodes may be wrapped around a relatively rectangular mandrel such that they form an oval wound coil for insertion into a relatively prismatic battery case. According to other exemplary embodiments, the battery may be provided as a button cell battery, a thin film solid state battery, or as another lithium-ion battery configuration.

The battery case (not shown) may be made of a metal such as aluminum or an aluminum alloy or another metal. According to an exemplary embodiment, the battery case may be made of titanium, a titanium alloy, or stainless steel. According to another exemplary embodiment, the battery case may be made of a plastic material or a plastic-foil laminate material (e.g., an aluminum foil provided intermediate a polyolefin layer and a polyester layer).

According to an exemplary embodiment, the negative electrode is coupled to an aluminum case by a member or tab comprising aluminum or an aluminum alloy. An aluminum or aluminum alloy member or tab may be coupled or attached to the positive electrode. The tabs may serve as terminals for the battery according to an exemplary embodiment.

The dimensions of the battery 200 may differ according to a variety of exemplary embodiments. For example, according to one exemplary embodiment in which the electrodes are wound such that they may be provided in a relatively prismatic battery case, the battery has dimensions of between approximately 30-40 mm by between approximately 20-30 mm by between approximately 5-7 mm. According to another exemplary embodiment, the dimensions of the battery are approximately 20 mm by 20 mm by 3 mm. According to another exemplary embodiment, a battery may be provided in the form of a button cell type battery having a diameter of approximately 30 mm and a thickness of approximately 3 mm. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that such dimensions and configurations as are described herein are illustrative only, and that batteries in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and configurations may be produced in accordance with the novel concepts described herein.

An electrolyte 230 is provided intermediate or between the positive and negative electrodes to provide a medium through which lithium ions may travel. The electrolyte may be a liquid (e.g., a lithium salt dissolved in one or more non-aqueous solvents). According to an exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may be a mixture of polycarbonate (PC) and a 1.0 M salt of LiPF₆. According to another exemplary embodiment, an electrolyte may be used that is free of ethylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate or a lithium bis-oxalatoborate salt (sometimes referred to as LiBOB) that may be used in conventional lithium batteries.

Various other electrolytes may be used according to other exemplary embodiments. According to an exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may be a lithium salt dissolved in a polymeric material such as poly(ethylene oxide) or silicone. According to another exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may be an ionic liquid such as N-methyl-N-alkylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide salts. According to another exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may be a solid state electrolyte such as a lithium-ion conducting glass such as lithium phosphorous oxynitride (LiPON). According to another exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may be a 1:1 mixture of ethylene carbonate to diethylene carbonate (EC:DEC) in a 1.0 M salt of LiPF₆. According to another exemplary embodiment, the electrolyte may include a polypropylene carbonate solvent and a lithium bis-oxalatoborate salt. According to other exemplary embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise one or more of a PVDF copolymer, a PVDF-polyimide material, and organosilicon polymer, a thermal polymerization gel, a radiation cured acrylate, a particulate with polymer gel, an inorganic gel polymer electrolyte, an inorganic gel-polymer electrolyte, a PVDF gel, polyethylene oxide (PEO), a glass ceramic electrolyte, phosphate glasses, lithium conducting glasses, lithium conducting ceramics, and an inorganic ionic liquid gel, among others.

A separator 250 is provided intermediate or between the positive electrode 210 and the negative electrode 220. According to an exemplary embodiment, the separator 250 is a polymeric material such as a polypropylene/polyethelene copolymer or another polyolefin multilayer laminate that includes micropores formed therein to allow electrolyte and lithium ions to flow from one side of the separator to the other. The thickness of the separator 250 is between approximately 10 micrometers (μm) and 50 μm according to an exemplary embodiment. According to a particular exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the separator is approximately 25 μm and the average pore size of the separator is between approximately 0.02 μm and 0.1 μm.

The positive electrode 210 includes a current collector 212 made of a conductive material such as a metal. According to an exemplary embodiment, the current collector 212 comprises aluminum or an aluminum alloy.

According to an exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the current collector 212 is between approximately 5 μm and 75 μm. According to a particular exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the current collector 212 is approximately 20 μm. It should also be noted that while the positive current collector 212 has been illustrated and described as being a thin foil material, the positive current collector may have any of a variety of other configurations according to various exemplary embodiments. For example, the positive current collector may be a grid such as a mesh grid, an expanded metal grid, a photochemically etched grid, or the like.

The current collector 212 has a layer of active material 216 provided thereon (e.g., coated on the current collector). While FIG. 3 shows that the active material 216 is provided on only one side of the current collector 212, it should be understood that a layer of active material similar or identical to that shown as active material 216 may be provided or coated on both sides of the current collector 212.

According to an exemplary embodiment, the active material 216 is a material or compound that includes lithium. The lithium included in the primary active material 216 may be doped and undoped during discharging and charging of the battery, respectively. According to an exemplary embodiment, the primary active material 216 is lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂). According to another exemplary embodiment, the active material provided on the current collector 212 is LiMn₂O₄. According to another exemplary embodiment, the active material provided on the current collector 212 is a material of the form LiCo_(x)Ni_((1-x))O₂, where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8. According to another exemplary embodiment, the active material provided on the current collector 212 is a material of the form LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Mn_((1-x-y))O₂ (e.g., LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂). According to another exemplary embodiment, the active material provided on the current collector 212 is a metal-doped variety of one of these materials, such as a material of the form LiM_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂, where M is aluminum or titanium and x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3.

For certain applications, it may be desirable to provide a battery having a cell voltage of greater than approximately 3 volts. In such cases, a higher-voltage active material may be utilized on the positive current collector, such as a material in the form Li_(2-x)Co_(y)Fe_(z)Mn_(4-(y+z))O₈ (e.g., Li₂Co_(0.4)Fe_(0.4)Mn_(3.2)O₈). It is believed that such an active material may charge up to 5.2 volts versus a lithium reference electrode, making it possible to obtain an overall cell voltage of up to approximately 3.7 volts. Other relatively high-voltage active materials that may be used for the positive electrode include LiCoPO₄; Li₂CoPO₄F; LiNiPO₄; Li[Ni_(0.2)Li_(0.2)Mn_(0.6)]O₂; and LiCo_(x)Mn_(2-x)O₄ (e.g., LiCu_(0.3)Mn_(1.7)O₄).

According to various other exemplary embodiments, the active material may include a material such as a material of the form Li_(1-x)MO₂ where M is a metal (e.g., LiCoO₂, LiNiO₂, and LiMnO₂), a material of the form Li_(1-w)(M′_(x)M″_(y))O₂ where M′ and M″ are different metals (e.g., Li(Cr_(x)Mn_(1-x))O₂, Li(Al_(x)Mn_(1-x))O₂, Li(Co_(x)M_(1-x))O₂ where M is a metal, Li(Co_(x)Ni_(1-x))O₂, and Li(Co_(x)Fe_(1-x))O₂)), a material of the form L_(1-W)(Mn_(x)Ni_(y)CO_(z))O₂ (e.g., Li(Mn_(1/3)Ni_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂, Li(Mn_(1/3)Ni_(1/3)Co_(1/3-x)Mg_(x))O₂, Li(Mn_(0.4)Ni_(0.4)CO_(0.2))O₂, and Li(Mn_(0.1)Ni_(0.1)Co_(0.8))O₂), a material of the form Li_(1-W)(Mn_(x)Ni_(x)Co_(1-2x))O₂, a material of the form Li_(1-w)(Mn_(x)Ni_(y)Co_(z)Al_(w))O₂, a material of the form Li_(1-W)(Ni_(x)Co_(y)Al_(z))O₂ (e.g., Li(Ni_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05))O₂), a material of the form Li_(1-w)(Ni_(x)Co_(y)M_(z))O₂ where M is a metal, a material of the form Li_(1-W)(Ni_(x)Mn_(y)M_(z))O₂ where M is a metal, a material of the form Li(Ni_(x-y)Mn_(y)Cr_(2-x))O₄, LiMn₂O₄, a material of the form LiM′M″₂O₄ where M′ and M″ are different metals (e.g., LiMn_(2-y-z), Ni_(y)O₄, Li_(z)O₄, LiMn_(1.5) Ni_(0.5)O₄, LiNiCuO₄, LiMn_(1-x)Al_(x)O₄, LiNi_(0.5)Ti_(0.5)O₄, and Li_(1.05)Al_(0.1)Mn_(1.85)O_(4-z)F_(z)), Li₂MnO₃, a material of the form Li_(x)V_(y)O_(z) (e.g., LiV₃O₈, LiV₂O₅, and LiV₆O₁₃), a material of the form LiMPO₄ where M is a metal or LiM_(x)′M″_(1-x)PO₄ where M′ and M″ are different metals (e.g., LiFePO₄, LiFe_(x)M_(1-x)PO₄ where M is a metal, LiVOPO₄, and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃, and LiMPO_(4x) where M is a metal such as iron or vanadium and X is a halogen such as fluorine, and combinations thereof.

A binder material may also be utilized in conjunction with the layer of active material 216 to bond or hold the various electrode components together. For example, according to an exemplary embodiment, the layer of active material may include a conductive additive such as carbon black and a binder such as polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF) or an elastomeric polymer.

According to an exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the layer of active material 216 is between approximately 0.1 μm and 3 mm. According to another exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the layer of active material 216 is between approximately 25 μm and 300 μm. According to a particular exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the layer of active material 216 is approximately 75 μm.

The negative electrode 220 includes a current collector 222 that is made of a conductive material such as a metal. According to an exemplary embodiment, the current collector 222 is aluminum or an aluminum alloy. One advantageous feature of utilizing an aluminum or aluminum alloy current collector is that such a material is relatively inexpensive and may be relatively easily formed into a current collector. Other advantageous features of utilizing an aluminum or aluminum current collector is that such a material may exhibit a relatively low density, a relatively high conductivity, is relatively readily weldable, and is generally commercially available. According to another exemplary embodiment, the current collector 222 is titanium or a titanium alloy. According to another exemplary embodiment, the current collector 222 is silver or a silver alloy.

While the negative current collector 222 has been illustrated and described as being a thin foil material, the negative current collector may have any of a variety of other configurations according to various exemplary embodiments. For example, the negative current collector may be a grid such as a mesh grid, an expanded metal grid, a photochemically etched grid, or the like.

According to an exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the current collector 222 is between approximately 100 nm and 100 μm. According to another exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the current collector 222 is between approximately 5 μm and 25 μm. According to a particular exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the current collector 222 is approximately 10 μm.

The negative current collector 222 has an active material 224 provided thereon. While FIG. 3 shows that the active material 224 is provided on only one side of the current collector 222, it should be understood that a layer of active material similar or identical to that shown may be provided or coated on both sides of the current collector 222.

According to an exemplary embodiment, the negative active material 224 is a lithium titanate material such as Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ (sometimes referred to as Li_(1+x)[Li_(1/3)Ti_(5/3)]O₄, with 0≦x<1). Other lithium titanate materials which may be suitable for use as the negative active material may include one or more of the following lithium titanate spinel materials: H_(x)Li_(y-x)TiO_(x)O₄, H_(x)Li_(y-x)TiO_(x)O₄, Li₄M_(x)Ti_(5-x)O₁₂, Li_(x)Ti_(y)O₄, Li_(x)Ti_(y)O₄, Li₄[Ti_(1.67)Li_(0.33-y)M_(y)]O₄, Li₂TiO₃, Li₄Ti_(4.75)V_(0.25)O₁₂, Li₄Ti_(4.75)Fe_(0.25)O_(11.88), Li₄Ti_(4.5)Mn_(0.5)O₁₂, and LiM′M″XO₄ (where M′ is a metal such as nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese, vanadium, copper, chromium, molybdenum, niobium, or combinations thereof, M″ is an optional three valent non-transition metal, and X is zirconium, titanium, or a combination of these two). Note that such lithium titanate spinel materials may be used in any state of lithiation (e.g., Li_(4+x)Ti₅O₁₂, where 0≦x≦3).

A binder material may also be utilized in conjunction with the layer of active material 224. For example, according to an exemplary embodiment, the layer of active material may include a binder such as polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF) or an elastomeric polymer. The active material 224 may also include a conductive material such as carbon (e.g., carbon black) at weight loadings of between zero and ten percent to provide increased electronic conductivity.

According to various exemplary embodiments, the thickness of the active material 224 is between approximately 0.1 μm and 3 mm. According to other exemplary embodiments, the thickness of the active material 224 may be between approximately 25 μm and 300 μm. According to another exemplary embodiment, the thickness of the active material 224 may be between approximately 20 μm and 90 μm, and according to a particular exemplary embodiment, approximately 75 μm.

FIG. 4 is a graph 300 illustrating the theoretical charging and discharging behavior for a lithium-ion battery constructed in accordance with an exemplary embodiment such as that shown and described with regard to FIG. 3. Curve 310 represents the electrode potential versus a lithium reference electrode for a positive electrode (e.g., positive electrode 210) that includes an aluminum current collector having a LiCoO₂ primary active material provided thereon.

Curve 320 represents the electrode potential versus a lithium reference electrode for a negative electrode that includes an aluminum current collector having a lithium titanate active material provided thereon. The difference between curves 310 and 320 is representative of the overall cell voltage of the battery, and is represented as curve 340 in FIG. 4.

As shown in FIG. 4, the relatively flat portion (labeled with reference numeral 324) of the curve 320 representing the voltage of the negative electrode (e.g., electrode 220) is at a level of between approximately 1.5 and 1.6 volts. Thus, the relatively flat portion 324 of the curve 320 is at a level that is significantly greater than that of an electrode utilizing a carbon active material (see, e.g., curve 120 in FIG. 2, which represents the theoretical voltage versus a lithium reference electrode for a negative electrode incorporating a carbon active material).

When the cell is charged, the potentials of the positive and negative electrodes progress to the right along curves 310 and 320, respectively. When the cell is discharged, the potentials of the positive and negative electrode potentials progress toward the left along curves 310 and 320, respectively, with a zero voltage crossing potential of approximately 3.8 volts (shown as point 330 in FIG. 4). As the cell approaches a zero voltage condition (e.g., curve 340 drops to zero volts, representing the voltage differential between the positive and negative electrodes), the voltage of the positive electrode is above the decomposition potential of the LiCoO₂ active material provided thereon, which is shown as dashed line 322 in FIG. 4. Additionally, because an aluminum current collector is utilized for the negative electrode, the negative electrode has increased resistance to corrosion as compared to copper materials which may be utilized for the negative electrode.

It is intended that a lithium-ion battery such as that described herein may be fully discharged while the materials for both electrodes, including their corresponding current collectors, are stable (e.g., corrosion of the current collectors and/or the decomposition of active material may be avoided, etc.). For example, it is intended that a battery produced using a positive electrode including an aluminum current collector and a LiCoO₂ active material and a negative electrode including an aluminum current collector and a lithium titanate active material will allow for repeated cycling of the battery to zero or near-zero voltage conditions without a significant decline in battery charging capacity or battery performance. One potential advantageous feature of such an arrangement is that the occurrence of reduced device functionality (i.e., the need to recharge more frequently) and corrosion of the current collectors and battery case (with the incumbent possibility of leaking potentially corrosive and toxic battery contents) may be reduced or avoided.

Various advantageous features may be obtained by batteries such as those shown and described herein. For example, use of batteries which utilize a lithium titanate active material on an aluminum electrode may eliminate the need to utilize circuitry to disconnect batteries approaching near-zero voltage conditions, since such batteries may be cycled to zero voltage and near-zero voltage repeatedly without a significant loss in battery performance or capacity. By not utilizing circuitry for this function, volume and cost reductions may be obtained.

One advantageous feature of using a lithium titanate material is that it is believed that when used in a negative electrode of a lithium-ion battery, such materials will cycle lithium at a potential plateau of about 1.55 volts versus a lithium reference electrode. This is substantially higher than graphitic carbon, which cycles lithium at approximately 0.1 volts in the fully charged state (see, e.g., FIG. 2, in which curve 120 is representative of the charging/discharging behavior of a negative electrode utilizing graphitic carbon). As a result, the battery using lithium titanate is believed to be less likely to result in plating of lithium (which occurs at 0 volts versus a lithium reference) while being charged. Lithium plating is a well-known phenomenon that can lead to loss in performance of lithium ion batteries.

Another advantage of using a lithium titanate material instead of a carbonaceous material for the negative active material is that it is believed that the use of a lithium titanate material allows for charging and discharging of the battery at higher rates than is capable using carbonaceous materials. For example, a common upper limit for the rate of charge in lithium ion batteries is about 1 C (meaning that the battery can be fully charged from the discharged state in one hour). Conversely, it has been reported in literature that lithium titanate may be charged at rates up to 10 C (i.e., attaining full charge in 1/10 hour, or six minutes). One potential reason for this is that negative electrodes utilizing a lithium titanate active material are believed to be less susceptible to the risk of lithium plating. The ability to recharge a battery more quickly may substantially increase the functionality of devices that employ such a battery.

It is also believed that the use of negative electrodes that include a lithium titanate active material may allow for charging of the battery at voltages that exceed those used in the charging of batteries in which the negative electrodes utilize carbon active materials. One potential advantage of such a property is that nonhermetic cells (e.g., cells using a rivet polymer feedthrough, foil package, etc.) may be produced. Nonhermetic cells typically have greater energy density than other cells, are relatively inexpensive to manufacture, and may be produced using a wider variety of materials (e.g, polymer foil laminates, etc.). In medical applications in particular, such cells have conventionally utilized with polymer or gel electrolytes which have lower vapor pressure to provide a reduced risk of leakage. However, such electrolytes are typically less conductive than liquid electrolytes, resulting in relatively low power and/or charge rate. By utilizing a battery that includes a lithium titanate active material on an aluminum current collector, the charge voltage of the cell may be increased to compensate for resistive losses (e.g., IR drops) in the electrolyte.

Lithium titanate materials are also believed to offer superior cycle life because they are so called “zero-strain” materials. Zero strain materials have crystal lattices which do not experience shrinkage or contraction with lithium doping/de-doping, making them free from strain-related degradation mechanisms. Such materials also have a relatively high specific capacity (approximately 155 mAh/g) and a similar volumetric capacity density to graphitic carbon.

A further advantage of the higher potential of the lithium titanate material is that it avoids decomposition of organic solvents (such as propylene carbonate) commonly used in lithium ion batteries. In so doing, it may reduce negative consequences such as formation of gas, cell swelling, and reduction of reversible battery capacity.

Another potential advantageous feature of utilizing a lithium titanate material for the negative electrode active material is that more favorable design rules may be possible. For example, in conventional lithium-ion cells, the negative electrode must overlap the positive electrode by approximately 1 mm on all edges in order to avoid plating of lithium. For applications in which space is a concern, this may result in significant wasted volume (e.g., for a cranial implant cell that is approximately 22 mm high, this may result in wasted volume of approximately 10 percent). Because use of a titanate material reduces the risk of lithium plating, it is believed that the design requirement of overlapping positive and negative electrodes may be unnecessary, thus allowing the production of lithium-ion batteries with improved energy density.

The lithium diffusion coefficient for lithium titanate materials may be on the order of approximately 2×10⁻⁸ cm²/s, which is approximately ten times that of carbon, thus allowing a comparatively rapid sustained rate capability. The use of such materials may allow the manufacture of batteries having lower surface area electrodes while still achieving adequate power and recharge rates. According to an exemplary embodiment, a battery utilizes monolithic (i.e., single-plate) electrodes in a coin cell or a foil laminate package. Due to the comparatively rapid sustained rate capability of the lithium titanate material, the battery may be relatively thin (e.g., approximately 1 mm) and inexpensive. Further, according to other exemplary embodiments, batteries may be produced in contoured shapes, which may allow for packaging of such batteries unobtrusively and in unconventional ways in a device (such as along an inner surface of a device housing or case, such as the housing or case of a medical device such as a pacemaker). This may be especially advantageous in a device such as a cranial implant, where it may be desirable to provide the device having a contour to match the curvature of the skull.

Conventional lithium-ion cells are balanced with a nominal excess negative active material of between approximately five and ten percent to avoid plating of lithium. The use of excess active material results in a larger battery, which results in a cell having reduced energy density. According to an exemplary embodiment, a battery or cell using a lithium titanate active material on an aluminum negative current collector may be produced without excess negative active material (e.g., as a “balanced design”).

Comparative Example #1

This example illustrates the overdischarge performance of lithium ion batteries utilizing a negative electrode having Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ active material coated onto an aluminum current collector as compared to the performance of lithium ion batteries in which a carbon active material (graphitized MCMB) is coated onto a copper current collector. In all cases, the electrodes were cycled against positive electrodes having a LiCoO₂ active material with a capacity of 5.53 mAh coated on an aluminum current collector.

Negative electrodes were produced by mixing lithium titanate (commercially available from Süd Chemie Corporation) with a poly(vinylidine fluoride) binder, carbon black and 1-methyl-2-pyrolidone (NMP) into a slurry and depositing the mixture onto an aluminum foil current collector and drying on a heated drum. The active weight percent of the dried coating was 89.25%. Three coating deposition levels of the coating were used: 17.37, 18.78 and 20.69 mg/cm². Based on the theoretical specific capacity of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ (155 mAh/g), the capacity of these electrodes was 4.76, 5.14 and 5.67 mAh, respectively. Thus, when cycled against the positive electrodes, the cell balance (i.e., the ratio of the negative and positive electrode capacities) was 0.85, 0.93 and 1.02, respectively.

After drying, the electrode coatings were calendared to a density of about 2.2 g/cm³ and cut into circular disks having an area of 1.98 cm². Lithium ion cells were produced by assembling these electrodes into type-2032 coin cell hardware. A microporous polyolefin separator was used to separate the negative and positive electrodes, and the cells were activated by the addition of electrolyte consisting of 1 M LiPF₆ in a mixture of propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate and diethyl carbonate.

Comparative cells were manufactured in identical fashion, with the exception of the fact that the negative electrodes utilized graphite active material (mesocarbon microbeads) coated on copper foil.

Cells were charged and discharged at a rate of 0.2 mA using an ARBIN BT2000 battery cycler. For the first four cycles, the cells were cycled over a normal operating voltage range (3.0 to 1.8 V for the Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ cells, 4.075 to 2.75 volts for the comparative cells). After completing four cycles, the cells then underwent four overdischarge cycles, where they were discharged to 0 volts and charged back to their normal charge voltage. The overdischarge took place as a sequence of steps at progressively lower currents: 0.2 mA down to 1.8 volts, 0.05 mA to 1.0 volts and 0.01 mA to 0 volts. Following the overdischarge cycles, the cells were then cycled over the original voltage range to measure the recovered capacity for the cells.

A graph showing the discharge capacity versus cycle number for each of the cells tested is shown in FIG. 5. Test data revealed a loss of discharge capacity over time after repeated overdischarge cycling for the comparative cells (i.e., cells using carbon active material on copper current collectors), while little or no loss of discharge capacity was observed for cells utilizing Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ negative active material and an aluminum foil current collector.

TABLE 1 lists the cell discharge capacity of the cells during the fourth and ninth cycles of testing (i.e., the cycles immediately preceding and immediately following the overdischarge cycles). For cells using negative electrodes with a Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ active material on an aluminum current collector, there is little or no loss in capacity following the overdischarge cycles. For the comparative cells (graphite active material on copper current collector), the average capacity loss was observed to be 84%.

TABLE 1 also lists the ratio of theoretical capacity of the negative and positive electrodes for the Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ cells. This data indicates that little or no capacity loss may be obtained regardless of whether the cells are negative limited (ratio of negative to positive electrode capacity less than 1) or positive limited (ratio of negative to positive electrode capacity greater than 1).

TABLE 1 Negative/Positive Cycle 4 Cycle 9 Negative Electrode Capacity Discharge Discharge Capacity Loss Group/Serial Active Ratio for Capacity Capacity Due to Number Material Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ Cells (mAh) (mAh) Overdischarge 17-CAL-01 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 0.86 4.12 4.13 −0.3% 17-CAL-02 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 0.86 4.37 4.40 −0.6% 17-CAL-03 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 0.86 4.49 4.47 0.4% Average 4.33 4.33 −0.2% Standard Dev. 0.19 0.18 0.5% 19-CAL-01 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 0.93 4.81 4.83 −0.4% 19-CAL-02 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 0.93 4.36 4.40 −0.8% 19-CAL-03 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 0.93 4.84 4.78 1.2% Average 4.67 4.67 0.0% Standard Dev. 0.27 0.24 1.1% 21-CAL-02 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 1.02 5.32 5.32 0.1% 21-CAL-03 Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ 1.02 4.37 4.23 3.2% Average 4.84 4.77 1.6% Standard Dev. 0.67 0.77 2.2% MCMB-02 Carbon n/a 4.99 1.68 66.4% MCMB-03 Carbon n/a 4.96 1.44 71.0% MCMB-04 Carbon n/a 4.88 0.14 97.1% MCMB-05 Carbon n/a 4.91 0.72 85.3% MCMB-06 Carbon n/a 4.88 0.00 100.0% Average 4.93 0.80 84.0% Standard Dev. 0.05 0.75 15.1%

Comparative Example #2

This example illustrates potential advantageous features of utilizing a Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ active material on a negative current collector made of aluminum as opposed to a negative current collector made of copper. In all cases described below, the negative electrodes were cycled against positive electrodes having a LiCoO₂ active material having a capacity of 14.1 mAh.

A negative electrode was produced by mixing lithium titanate (commercially available from Süd Chemie Corporation) with poly(vinylidine flouride) binder, carbon black and 1-methyl-2-pyrolidone (NMP) into a slurry and depositing the slurry onto an aluminum foil current collector and drying on a heated drum. The active weight percent of the dried coating was 89.25%. The coating deposition level was 18.78 mg/cm². The active area of the electrode was 5.04 cm². Based on the theoretical specific capacity of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ (155 mAh/g), the capacity of this electrode was 13.1 mAh.

A battery was assembled by combining the above-mentioned negative and positive electrodes, spaced by a microporous separator, inside of a hermetic stainless steel can. The negative electrode was welded onto the inside of the can, and the positive electrode was connected to a an electrical feedthrough. A lithium reference electrode was placed on the end of a second feedthrough pin, such that the lithium was located in the headspace of the cell. A polyolefin spacer was placed inside the can, parallel to the positive electrodes, to maintain uniform contact across the entire electrode surface. The cell was activated by filling with electrolyte consisting of 1 M LiPF₆ in a mixture of propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate and diethyl carbonate.

The battery was cycled by charging and discharging at a current of 0.5 mA using an ARBIN BT2000 battery cycler. For the first four cycles, the cell was cycled over a typical operational voltage range (charge to 3.0 volts, discharge to 1.8 volts). Next, the cell was subjected to four overdischarge steps consisting of a normal charge followed by overdischarge to 0 volts. The overdischarge took place as a sequence of galvanostatic steps, as follows: 0.5 mA down to 1.8 volts, 0.125 mA down to 1.0 volts, 0.05 mA down to 0 volts. After the overdischarge steps, the cell was again charged and discharged per the original method. An auxiliary voltage measuring channel was used to record the potential of the negative electrode versus the lithium reference electrode. The potential of the positive electrode was obtained by summing the total battery voltage with the auxiliary voltage.

FIG. 6 shows three voltage traces for the cell. Curve 630 is the total cell voltage, curve 620 is the positive electrode (versus Li reference) and curve 610 is the negative electrode (versus Li reference). During normal cycling, the potential of the negative electrode ranges between about 1.2 and 2.1 volts. However, during overdischarge, the potential of the negative electrode increases until it meets the potential of the positive electrode. The two electrodes meet at a potential of approximately 3.9 volts. At this point, known as the “zero-volt crossing potential,” the cell voltage (defined as the difference between the positive and negative electrode potentials) is 0 volts. If this cell were to have been made using a copper current collector for the negative electrodes, it is expected that the copper would have corroded, because 3.9 volts is several hundred millivolts more anodic than the corrosion potential of copper (approximately 3.5 volts).

A battery was fabricated and tested using methods identical to those described above. The battery utilized a negative electrode including a graphitized carbon active material on a copper current collector. FIG. 7 shows the voltage traces for this battery (i.e., curve 710 is the total cell voltage, curve 720 is the positive electrode (versus Li reference) and curve 730 is the negative electrode (versus Li reference)). During the overdischarge cycle, the potential of the negative electrode was never above approximately 3.5 volts. It is believed that the reason for this is that at this point, the copper current collector was freely corroding, with the driving force for the corrosion reaction being supplied by the positive electrode.

According to an exemplary embodiment, lithium-ion batteries such as those described above may be used in conjunction with medical devices such as medical devices that may be implanted in the human body (referred to as “implantable medical devices” or “IMD's”).

FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic view of a system 400 (e.g., an implantable medical device) implanted within a body or torso 432 of a patient 430. The system 400 includes a device 410 in the form of an implantable medical device that for purposes of illustration is shown as a defibrillator configured to provide a therapeutic high voltage (e.g., 700 volt) treatment for the patient 430.

The device 410 includes a container or housing 414 that is hermetically sealed and biologically inert according to an exemplary embodiment. The container may be made of a conductive material. One or more leads 416 electrically connect the device 410 and to the patient's heart 420 via a vein 422. Electrodes 417 are provided to sense cardiac activity and/or provide an electrical potential to the heart 420. At least a portion of the leads 416 (e.g., an end portion of the leads shown as exposed electrodes 417) may be provided adjacent or in contact with one or more of a ventricle and an atrium of the heart 420.

The device 410 includes a battery 440 provided therein to provide power for the device 410. According to another exemplary embodiment, the battery 440 may be provided external to the device or external to the patient 430 (e.g., to allow for removal and replacement and/or charging of the battery). The size and capacity of the battery 440 may be chosen based on a number of factors, including the amount of charge required for a given patient's physical or medical characteristics, the size or configuration of the device, and any of a variety of other factors. According to an exemplary embodiment, the battery is a 5 mAh battery. According to another exemplary embodiment, the battery is a 300 mAh battery. According to various other exemplary embodiments, the battery may have a capacity of between approximately 10 and 1000 mAh.

According to other exemplary embodiments, more than one battery may be provided to power the device 410. In such exemplary embodiments, the batteries may have the same capacity or one or more of the batteries may have a higher or lower capacity than the other battery or batteries. For example, according to an exemplary embodiment, one of the batteries may have a capacity of approximately 500 mAh while another of the batteries may have a capacity of approximately 75 mAh.

According to another exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 9, an implantable neurological stimulation device 500 (an implantable neuro stimulator or INS) may include a battery 502 such as those described above with respect to the various exemplary embodiments. Examples of some neuro stimulation products and related components are shown and described in a brochure titled “Implantable Neurostimulation Systems” available from Medtronic, Inc.

An INS generates one or more electrical stimulation signals that are used to influence the human nervous system or organs. Electrical contacts carried on the distal end of a lead are placed at the desired stimulation site such as the spine or brain and the proximal end of the lead is connected to the INS. The INS is then surgically implanted into an individual such as into a subcutaneous pocket in the abdomen, pectoral region, or upper buttocks area. A clinician programs the INS with a therapy using a programmer. The therapy configures parameters of the stimulation signal for the specific patient's therapy. An INS can be used to treat conditions such as pain, incontinence, movement disorders such as epilepsy and Parkinson's disease, and sleep apnea. Additional therapies appear promising to treat a variety of physiological, psychological, and emotional conditions. Before an INS is implanted to deliver a therapy, an external screener that replicates some or all of the INS functions is typically connected to the patient to evaluate the efficacy of the proposed therapy.

The INS 500 includes a lead extension 522 and a stimulation lead 524. The stimulation lead 524 is one or more insulated electrical conductors with a connector 532 on the proximal end and electrical contacts (not shown) on the distal end. Some stimulation leads are designed to be inserted into a patient percutaneously, such as the Model 3487A Pisces-Quad® lead available from Medtronic, Inc. of Minneapolis Minn., and stimulation some leads are designed to be surgically implanted, such as the Model 3998 Specify® lead also available from Medtronic.

Although the lead connector 532 can be connected directly to the INS 500 (e.g., at a point 536), typically the lead connector 532 is connected to a lead extension 522. The lead extension 522, such as a Model 7495 available from Medtronic, is then connected to the INS 500.

Implantation of an INS 520 typically begins with implantation of at least one stimulation lead 524, usually while the patient is under a local anesthetic. The stimulation lead 524 can either be percutaneously or surgically implanted. Once the stimulation lead 524 has been implanted and positioned, the stimulation lead's 524 distal end is typically anchored into position to minimize movement of the stimulation lead 524 after implantation. The stimulation lead's 524 proximal end can be configured to connect to a lead extension 522.

The INS 500 is programmed with a therapy and the therapy is often modified to optimize the therapy for the patient (i.e., the INS may be programmed with a plurality of programs or therapies such that an appropriate therapy may be administered in a given situation). In the event that the battery 502 requires recharging, an external lead (not shown) may be used to electrically couple the battery to a charging device or apparatus.

A physician programmer and a patient programmer (not shown) may also be provided to allow a physician or a patient to control the administration of various therapies. A physician programmer, also known as a console programmer, uses telemetry to communicate with the implanted INS 500, so a clinician can program and manage a patient's therapy stored in the INS 500, troubleshoot the patient's INS 500 system, and/or collect data. An example of a physician programmer is a Model 7432 Console Programmer available from Medtronic. A patient programmer also uses telemetry to communicate with the INS 500, so the patient can manage some aspects of her therapy as defined by the clinician. An example of a patient programmer is a Model 7434 Itrel® 3 EZ Patient Programmer available from Medtronic.

While the medical devices described herein (e.g., systems 400 and 500) are shown and described as a defibrillator and a neurological stimulation device, it should be appreciated that other types of implantable medical devices may be utilized according to other exemplary embodiments, such as pacemakers, cardioverters, cardiac contractility modules, drug administering devices, diagnostic recorders, cochlear implants, and the like for alleviating the adverse effects of various health ailments. According to still other embodiments, non-implantable medical devices or other types of devices may utilize batteries as are shown and described in this disclosure.

It is also contemplated that the medical devices described herein may be charged or recharged when the medical device is implanted within a patient. That is, according to an exemplary embodiment, there is no need to disconnect or remove the medical device from the patient in order to charge or recharge the medical device. For example, transcutaneous energy transfer (TET) may be used, in which magnetic induction is used to deliver energy from outside the body to the implanted battery, without the need to make direct physical contact to the implanted battery, and without the need for any portion of the implant to protrude from the patient's skin. According to another exemplary embodiment, a connector may be provided external to the patient's body that may be electrically coupled to a charging device in order to charge or recharge the battery. According to other exemplary embodiments, medical devices may be provided that may require removal or detachment from the patient in order to charge or recharge the battery.

It is important to note that the construction and arrangement of the lithium-ion battery as shown and described with respect to the various exemplary embodiments is illustrative only. Although only a few embodiments of the present inventions have been described in detail in this disclosure, those skilled in the art who review this disclosure will readily appreciate that many modifications are possible (e.g., variations in sizes, dimensions, structures, shapes and proportions of the various elements, values of parameters, mounting arrangements, use of materials, colors, orientations, etc.) without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of the subject matter recited in the claims. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention as defined in the appended claims. Other substitutions, modifications, changes and omissions may be made in the design, operating conditions and arrangement of the preferred and other exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope of the present invention as expressed in the appended claims. 

1. A lithium-ion battery comprising: a positive electrode comprising an active material; a polymeric separator configured to allow electrolyte and lithium ions to flow between a first side of the separator and an opposite second side of the separator; a liquid electrolyte comprising a lithium salt dissolved in at least one non-aqueous solvent; a negative electrode comprising a lithium titanate active material; wherein the positive electrode has a first capacity and the negative electrode has a second capacity that is less than the first capacity.
 2. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the lithium titanate material comprises Li₄Ti₅O₁₂.
 3. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the second capacity to the first capacity is 0.85.
 4. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the second capacity to the first capacity is 0.93.
 5. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein edges of the negative electrode do not overlap adjacent edges of the positive electrode by a distance.
 6. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the positive electrode and the negative electrode each include foil current collectors.
 7. The lithium-ion battery of claim 6, wherein the foil current collector of at least one of the positive electrode and the negative electrode comprises aluminum.
 8. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the active material of the positive electrode comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCoO₂ and LiMn₂O₄.
 9. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the active material of the positive electrode comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCo_(x)Ni(1-x)O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3.
 10. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the active material of the positive electrode comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of Li₂CO_(0.4)Fe_(0.4)Mn_(3.2)O₈, LiCoPO₄F, LiNiPO₄, and LiCO_(0.3)Mn_(1.7)O₄.
 11. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the battery has a nonhermetic construction.
 12. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, further comprising a battery housing that comprises aluminum.
 13. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the positive electrode and the negative electrode have a zero voltage crossing potential above the decomposition potential of the active material of the positive electrode.
 14. The lithium-ion battery of claim 1, wherein the separator comprises a polyolefin material.
 15. A lithium-ion battery comprising: a positive electrode having a first capacity and comprising a foil current collector and an active material comprising at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiCo_(x)Ni_((1-x))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3; an electrolyte; and a negative electrode having a second capacity that is not greater than the first capacity, the negative electrode comprising a foil current collector and a lithium titanate active material.
 16. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the lithium titanate active material comprises Li₄Ti₅O₁₂.
 17. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the active material of the positive electrode comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCo_(x)Ni_((1-x))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3.
 18. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the second capacity is less than the first capacity.
 19. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the ratio of the second capacity to the first capacity is 0.85.
 20. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the ratio of the second capacity to the first capacity is 0.93.
 21. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein at least one edge of the negative electrode does not extend beyond an adjacent edge of the positive electrode.
 22. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, further comprising a porous polymeric separator provided between the positive electrode and the negative electrode.
 23. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the electrolyte is a liquid electrolyte.
 24. The lithium-ion battery of claim 23, wherein the electrolyte comprises LiPF₆ and at least non-aqueous solvent selected from the group consisting of propylene carbonate, ethylene carbone, and diethylene carbonate.
 25. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the current collector of the negative electrode comprises aluminum.
 26. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the current collector of the negative electrode comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of silver and titanium.
 27. The lithium-ion battery of claim 26, wherein the positive current collector comprises aluminum.
 28. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the battery is nonhermetic.
 29. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, further comprising a battery case in contact with the negative electrode, the battery case comprising aluminum.
 30. The lithium-ion battery of claim 15, wherein the active material of the negative electrode further comprises carbon and a poly(vinylidine fluoride) binder.
 31. A lithium-ion battery comprising: a positive electrode having a first capacity and comprising a foil current collector and an active material comprising at least one material selected from the group consisting of LiCoO₂, LiMn₂O₄, LiCo_(x)Ni(1-x)O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3; a liquid electrolyte; a negative electrode having a second capacity that is not greater than the first capacity, the negative electrode comprising a foil current collector and a Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ active material; and a porous polymeric separator provided between the positive electrode and the negative electrode.
 32. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the ratio of the second capacity to the first capacity is 0.85.
 33. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the ratio of the second capacity to the first capacity is 0.93.
 34. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein at least one edge of the negative electrode does not extend beyond an adjacent edge of the positive electrode.
 35. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the active material of the positive electrode is selected from the group consisting of LiCo_(x)Ni_((1-x))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.8, LiNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O₂, LiAl_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3, and LiTi_(x)Co_(y)Ni_((1-x-y))O₂ where x is between approximately 0.05 and 0.3 and y is between approximately 0.1 and 0.3.
 36. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the electrolyte comprises LiPF₆ and at least one material selected from the group consisting of propylene carbonate, ethylene carbone, and diethylene carbonate.
 37. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the negative electrode comprises an aluminum current collector.
 38. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the battery is nonhermetic.
 39. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the positive electrode and the negative electrode have zero voltage below a corrosion potential of the aluminum current collector of the negative electrode.
 40. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, further comprising a polymeric separator provided intermediate the positive electrode and the negative electrode.
 41. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, further comprising a battery housing in contact with the negative electrode, the battery housing comprising aluminum.
 42. The lithium-ion battery of claim 31, wherein the separator is configured to allow the electrolyte and lithium ions to flow through the separator. 